-
1 step principle
1) Космонавтика: ступенчатый принцип2) Макаров: ступенчатый принцип конструирования (ракеты) -
2 step principle
Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > step principle
-
3 step principle
принцип многоступенчатой ( составной) ракеты -
4 step principle
n ступінчастий принцип -
5 step-by-step principle
-
6 step-by-step principle
Экология: принцип последовательных действийУниверсальный англо-русский словарь > step-by-step principle
-
7 principle
1. n принцип, основа, закон2. n норма, основное правило; принципunanimity principle, principle of unanimity — принцип единогласия
3. n принцип; основа4. n специфика действия, действующее начало лекарственного вещества5. n источник, первопричина, первооснова6. n хим. составная часть, элементprinciple and interest — капитальная часть долга и процент; основная часть долга и процент
Синонимический ряд:1. belief (noun) belief; creed; doctrine; faith; opinion; system; tenet2. ethics (noun) ethics; integrity; morality; standards3. grounds (noun) grounds; motive; rationale; reason4. ideal (noun) goodness; honesty; honor; honour; ideal; incorruptibility; probity; rectitude; righteousness; trustworthiness5. postulate (noun) axiom; fundamental; maxim; postulate; precept; principium; proposition; source; theorem; universal6. regulation (noun) canon; law; parameter; prescript; regulation; rule; standard; testАнтонимический ряд:development; exercise; exhibition; formation; immorality; issue; manifestation; operation -
8 principle
hot gas cycle principle — принцип реактивного привода (несущего винта) с дожиганием топлива в концевых горелках, турбореактивный принцип
-
9 principle
[ʹprınsıp(ə)l] n1. принцип, основа, законArchimedes' principle, buoyancy principle - закон Архимеда
principles of biology [of government] - основы биологии [правления]
principle of action and reaction - закон равенства действия и противодействия
2. норма, основное правило ( поведения); принципunanimity principle, principle of unanimity - принцип единогласия
on principle - а) из принципа; б) в соответствии с правилом, нормой, привычкой и т. п. [ср. тж. 3, 1)]
he drank hot milk every night on principle - у него было правилом /он имел обыкновение/ каждый вечер пить горячее молоко
I make it a principle never to lend money - я взял за правило никому не давать взаймы
3. 1) принцип ( работы); основа (действия, устройства)to work on principle - работать /действовать/ по какому-л. принципу [ср. тж. 2]
in all these instruments the principle is the same - все эти инструменты действуют по одному и тому же принципу
2) специфика действия, действующее начало лекарственного вещества4. источник, первопричина, первооснова5. хим. составная часть, элемент -
10 principle
ˈprɪnsəpl сущ.
1) принцип а) правило;
закон, норма;
основная идея a question of principle ≈ принципиальный вопрос as a matter of principle ≈ в принципе of principle ≈ принципиальный down a principle ≈ сформулировать правило/закон to adhere to, apply a principle ≈ применять правило/закон to establish, formulate, lay basic principles ≈ основные принципы deep background principle ≈ амер. принцип "без права ссылки на источник" (согласно этому принципу информация, предоставляемая журналистам, может быть опубликована без ссылки на источник ее получения) guiding principle ≈ руководящий принцип/мотив unanimity principle ≈ принцип единогласия in principle on the principle that Syn: law, rule, assumption, axiom, theorem б) моральные нормы и правила high principle ≈ высокие идеалы/принципы/мотивы strict principle ≈ строгие правила a man of no principles ≈ беспринципный человек man of high(est) principles ≈ высокопринципиальный человек to betray, compromise one's principles ≈ изменить своим принципам, пойти на сделку с совестью We adhere to the principle that everyone should be treated fairly. ≈ Мы следуем принципу, по которому с каждым следует поступать по-честному. on principle в) принцип устройства машины, механизма и т. п.
2) первопричина;
источник, причина;
основа Syn: cause
3) хим. составная часть, элемент принцип, основа, закон - Archimedes' *, buoyancy * закон Архимеда - *s of war принципы военного искусства - *s of biology основы биологии - * of action and reaction закон равенства действия и противодействия - * of universal gravitation закон всемирного тяготения норма, основное правило( поведения) ;
принцип - unanimity *, * of unanimity принцип единогласия - on * из принципа;
в соответствии с правилом, нормой, привычкой и т. п. - he drank hot milk every night on * у него было правилом /он имел обыкновение/ каждый вечер пить горячее молоко - in * в принципе - a man of * принципиальный человек - a man of no *s беспринципный человек - to stick to one's *s придерживаться своих принципов - the *s of a political party принципы политической партии - I make it a * never to lend money я взял за правило, никому не давать взаймы принцип (работы) ;
основа (действия, устройства) - step * ступенчатый принцип конструирования( ракеты) - to work on * работать /действовать/ по какому-л. принципу - in all these instruments the * is the same все эти инструменты действуют по одному и тому-же принципу специфика действия, действующее начало лекарственного вещества источник, первопричина, первооснова( химическое) составная часть, элемент accruals ~ принцип наращивания accusatorial ~ доктрина обвинения adhesion ~ принцип согласия ~ принцип;
правило;
закон;
as a matter of principle в принципе;
unanimity principle принцип единогласия assessment ~ принцип оценки auditing ~ принцип проведения ревизии averaging ~ принцип усреднения basic ~ основной принцип benefit ~ принцип полезности business ~ деловой принцип business ~ принципы ведения торгово-промышленной деятельности calculation ~ принцип вычислений calculation ~ принцип расчета cutting-off ~ принцип периодизации decision as to ~ решение в принципе depreciation ~ принцип начисления износа distribution/contribution ~ принцип распределения и отчисления domain ~s специальные принципы equimarginal ~ принцип равенства в пределе exclusion ~ принцип исключения FIFO ~ принцип обслуживания в порядке поступления FIFO ~ принцип расходования в порядке поступления first-in-first-out ~ принцип обслуживания в порядке поступления first-in-last-out ~ принцип обслуживания в обратном порядке fundamental ~ основной принцип going concern ~ принцип деятельности предприятия immutability ~ принцип неизменности in ~ в принципе;
on principle из принципа;
on the principle that исходя из того, что inventory ~ принцип управления запасами invoicing ~ порядок выписки счета-фактуры leading ~ основной принцип legal ~ правовой принцип liberty ~ принцип свободы majority ~ принцип большинства man of high(est) ~ высокопринципиальный человек;
a man of no principles беспринципный человек management ~ руководящий принцип management ~ управленческий принцип maximum ~ принцип максимума of ~ принципиальный;
a question of principle принципиальный вопрос in ~ в принципе;
on principle из принципа;
on the principle that исходя из того, что in ~ в принципе;
on principle из принципа;
on the principle that исходя из того, что parity ~ принцип паритета polluter pays ~ принцип "загрязнитель платит" precautionary ~ принцип предосторожности principle аксиома ~ закон ~ основа ~ основное правило ~ первопричина;
причина, источник ~ правило ~ принцип, доктрина, правило, норма ~ принцип;
правило;
закон;
as a matter of principle в принципе;
unanimity principle принцип единогласия ~ принцип ~ принцип устройства (машины, механизма и т. п.) ~ хим. составная часть, элемент ~ for allocation of reserves принцип распределения резервов ~ of 'just who do you think you are' принцип "вы именно тот, кем вы себя считаете" ~ of balance принцип баланса ~ of causation принцип причинной обусловленности ~ of equal pay принцип равной оплаты ~ of equality принцип равенства ~ of free access to public records принцип свободного доступа к государственным архивам ~ of law правовая норма ~ of oral proceedings принцип устного производства ~ of reciprocity принцип взаимности ~ of scission система раздельных режимов супружеской собственности для движимости и недвижимости ~ of solidarity принцип солидарности ~ of surrogation принцип замещения pro rata ~ принцип пропорциональности quality ~ принцип обеспечения качества of ~ принципиальный;
a question of principle принципиальный вопрос question!: ~ of principle вопрос принципа rating ~ принцип расчета страховых премий rating ~ принцип расчета тарифных ставок realization ~ принцип реализации reserve allocation ~ принцип распределения резерва resolution ~ принцип резолюций scarcity ~ принцип недостаточности shortage ~ принцип дефицита tax ~ принцип налогообложения territorial ~ территориальный принцип total cost ~ принцип общей стоимости ~ принцип;
правило;
закон;
as a matter of principle в принципе;
unanimity principle принцип единогласия valuation ~ принцип оцениванияБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > principle
-
11 principle of least action
English-Russian big polytechnic dictionary > principle of least action
-
12 sequenced load step
English-Russian big medical dictionary > sequenced load step
-
13 on project-at-project principle
Деловая лексика: в отношении каждого отдельно взятого проекта (см. step by step)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > on project-at-project principle
-
14 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
-
15 Berliner, Emile
SUBJECT AREA: Recording[br]b. 20 May 1851 Hannover, Germanyd. 3 August 1929 Montreal, Canada[br]German (naturalized American) inventor, developer of the disc record and lateral mechanical replay.[br]After arriving in the USA in 1870 and becoming an American citizen, Berliner worked as a dry-goods clerk in Washington, DC, and for a period studied electricity at Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York. He invented an improved microphone and set up his own experimental laboratory in Washington, DC. He developed a microphone for telephone use and sold the rights to the Bell Telephone Company. Subsequently he was put in charge of their laboratory, remaining in that position for eight years. In 1881 Berliner, with his brothers Joseph and Jacob, founded the J.Berliner Telephonfabrik in Hanover, the first factory in Europe specializing in telephone equipment.Inspired by the development work performed by T.A. Edison and in the Volta Laboratory (see C.S. Tainter), he analysed the existing processes for recording and reproducing sound and in 1887 developed a process for transferring lateral undulations scratched in soot into an etched groove that would make a needle and diaphragm vibrate. Using what may be regarded as a combination of the Phonautograph of Léon Scott de Martinville and the photo-engraving suggested by Charles Cros, in May 1887 he thus demonstrated the practicability of the laterally recorded groove. He termed the apparatus "Gramophone". In November 1887 he applied the principle to a glass disc and obtained an inwardly spiralling, modulated groove in copper and zinc. In March 1888 he took the radical step of scratching the lateral vibrations directly onto a rotating zinc disc, the surface of which was protected, and the subsequent etching created the groove. Using well-known principles of printing-plate manufacture, he developed processes for duplication by making a negative mould from which positive copies could be pressed in a thermoplastic compound. Toy gramophones were manufactured in Germany from 1889 and from 1892–3 Berliner manufactured both records and gramophones in the USA. The gramophones were hand-cranked at first, but from 1896 were based on a new design by E.R. Johnson. In 1897–8 Berliner spread his activities to England and Germany, setting up a European pressing plant in the telephone factory in Hanover, and in 1899 a Canadian company was formed. Various court cases over patents removed Berliner from direct running of the reconstructed companies, but he retained a major economic interest in E.R. Johnson's Victor Talking Machine Company. In later years Berliner became interested in aeronautics, in particular the autogiro principle. Applied acoustics was a continued interest, and a tile for controlling the acoustics of large halls was successfully developed in the 1920s.[br]Bibliography16 May 1888, Journal of the Franklin Institute 125 (6) (Lecture of 16 May 1888) (Berliner's early appreciation of his own work).1914, Three Addresses, privately printed (a history of sound recording). US patent no. 372,786 (basic photo-engraving principle).US patent no. 382,790 (scratching and etching).US patent no. 534,543 (hand-cranked gramophone).Further ReadingR.Gelatt, 1977, The Fabulous Phonograph, London: Cassell (a well-researched history of reproducible sound which places Berliner's contribution in its correct perspective). J.R.Smart, 1985, "Emile Berliner and nineteenth-century disc recordings", in WonderfulInventions, ed. Iris Newson, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, pp. 346–59 (provides a reliable account).O.Read and W.L.Welch, 1959, From Tin Foil to Stereo, Indianapolis: Howard W.Sams, pp. 119–35 (provides a vivid account, albeit with less precision).GB-N -
16 action
1) действие
2) воздействие
3) дейстиве
4) искание
5) мероприятие
– action field
– action function
– action integral
– action potential
– antihunt action
– area of action
– autocatalytic action
– back action
– buffer action
– center of action
– comminuting action
– compound action
– control action
– corrective action
– corrosive action
– course of action
– crowding action
– delayed action
– derivative action
– end action
– external action
– floating action
– input action
– integral action
– internal action
– jet action
– joint action
– law of action and reaction
– law of mass action
– least action
– line of action
– local action
– long-range action
– non-numerical action
– numerical action
– output action
– phase-focusing action
– PI action
– piston action
– position action
– positive action
– proportional action
– put out of action
– quantum of action
– range of action
– rate action
– reciprocal action
– shattering action
– silent action
– slabbing action
– snap action
– solvent action
delayed action acceleration — ускоритель замедленного действия
momentary action switch — клавишный переключатель без фиксации
selective action of a catalyst — избирательность катализатора
step-by-step action machine — автомат последовательного действия
-
17 operation
1) действие2) операция3) оперирование4) процесс, ход5) работа, функционирование6) срабатывание7) управление8) эксплуатация•- hereditarily recursive operationoperation under VFR — авиац. визуальное самолётовождение
-
18 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
-
19 PV
1) Общая лексика: promotional video2) Геология: Potomac Valley3) Биология: papilloma virus4) Медицина: pemphigus vulgaris5) Спорт: Point Value6) Латинский язык: Phaseolus Vulgaris7) Военный термин: Production Validation, physical vulnerability, positive vetting, prevailing visibility, product verification, professional volunteer8) Техника: phase velocity, phase vocoder, phonon velocity, piezoelectric vibrator, pipe ventilated, piping and valves, pit volume, planar varactor, plasma velocity, pressure valve, pressure-velocity, propagation vector, pump voltage, primary variable9) Химия: Pressure Volume, Peroxide Value (перекисное число)11) Экономика: (Planned Value - Плановый объем (Утвержденный бюджет, выделенный на плановые работы, выполняемые в рамках плановой операции или элемента иерархической структуры работ)12) Бухгалтерия: Principle Value, present value13) Страхование: Pilot vessel14) Музыка: Perspective View15) Сокращение: Patrol Vessel, Photovoltaic, Positive Vetting (UK), Production Verification, plain view, plan view, pressure vessel16) Физиология: Paravertebral, Peripheral Vision, Polycythemia Vera17) Электроника: Photo Voltaic, Pulsed Vertical18) Вычислительная техника: Physical Volume (LVM, HDD), Photovoltaic (Space)19) Нефть: pore volume, поровое пространство (pore volume), структурная вязкость (plastic viscosity), ёмкость чана (для бурового раствора; pit volume), число пептизации (peptization value)20) Транспорт: Passenger Vehicle21) Деловая лексика: Performance And Value, Principal Value, Production Value22) SAP. ВП23) Бурение: пластическая вязкость (plastic viscosity)24) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: клапан регулятора давления (pressure control valve), клапан-регулятор давления (pressure control valve), pore volume (product of porosity, height, and area of a reservoir)25) Нефтепромысловый: Production Vessel26) Сетевые технологии: physical volume, физический том27) Солнечная энергия: фотовольтаика28) Полимеры: pigment volume, pressure viscosimeter, pressure x velocity (при определении коэффициента трения)29) Полупроводники: photo-voltaic30) Сахалин Р: plastic viscosity, pressure control valve31) Океанография: Potential Vorticity32) Химическое оружие: Process variable33) Авиационная медицина: phonation volume, plasma volume34) Интернет: просмотр страницы (Page-View) (важное понятие в Интернет-рекламе, просмотр контента, выводимого на экран в результате действий пользователя (а не вследствие автоматического обновления страницы или других причин))35) Расширение файла: Analysis data (Phase Vocorder)36) Нефть и газ: current phase step name, instantaneous flow rate37) Фантастика Planet Vampire38) Фармация: pharmacovigilance39) ООН: Peasant Village40) Правительство: Paradise Valley, Pine Valley41) NYSE. Pfeiffer Vacuum Technology, A. G.42) Федеральное бюро расследований: Parole Violator -
20 Pv
1) Общая лексика: promotional video2) Геология: Potomac Valley3) Биология: papilloma virus4) Медицина: pemphigus vulgaris5) Спорт: Point Value6) Латинский язык: Phaseolus Vulgaris7) Военный термин: Production Validation, physical vulnerability, positive vetting, prevailing visibility, product verification, professional volunteer8) Техника: phase velocity, phase vocoder, phonon velocity, piezoelectric vibrator, pipe ventilated, piping and valves, pit volume, planar varactor, plasma velocity, pressure valve, pressure-velocity, propagation vector, pump voltage, primary variable9) Химия: Pressure Volume, Peroxide Value (перекисное число)11) Экономика: (Planned Value - Плановый объем (Утвержденный бюджет, выделенный на плановые работы, выполняемые в рамках плановой операции или элемента иерархической структуры работ)12) Бухгалтерия: Principle Value, present value13) Страхование: Pilot vessel14) Музыка: Perspective View15) Сокращение: Patrol Vessel, Photovoltaic, Positive Vetting (UK), Production Verification, plain view, plan view, pressure vessel16) Физиология: Paravertebral, Peripheral Vision, Polycythemia Vera17) Электроника: Photo Voltaic, Pulsed Vertical18) Вычислительная техника: Physical Volume (LVM, HDD), Photovoltaic (Space)19) Нефть: pore volume, поровое пространство (pore volume), структурная вязкость (plastic viscosity), ёмкость чана (для бурового раствора; pit volume), число пептизации (peptization value)20) Транспорт: Passenger Vehicle21) Деловая лексика: Performance And Value, Principal Value, Production Value22) SAP. ВП23) Бурение: пластическая вязкость (plastic viscosity)24) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: клапан регулятора давления (pressure control valve), клапан-регулятор давления (pressure control valve), pore volume (product of porosity, height, and area of a reservoir)25) Нефтепромысловый: Production Vessel26) Сетевые технологии: physical volume, физический том27) Солнечная энергия: фотовольтаика28) Полимеры: pigment volume, pressure viscosimeter, pressure x velocity (при определении коэффициента трения)29) Полупроводники: photo-voltaic30) Сахалин Р: plastic viscosity, pressure control valve31) Океанография: Potential Vorticity32) Химическое оружие: Process variable33) Авиационная медицина: phonation volume, plasma volume34) Интернет: просмотр страницы (Page-View) (важное понятие в Интернет-рекламе, просмотр контента, выводимого на экран в результате действий пользователя (а не вследствие автоматического обновления страницы или других причин))35) Расширение файла: Analysis data (Phase Vocorder)36) Нефть и газ: current phase step name, instantaneous flow rate37) Фантастика Planet Vampire38) Фармация: pharmacovigilance39) ООН: Peasant Village40) Правительство: Paradise Valley, Pine Valley41) NYSE. Pfeiffer Vacuum Technology, A. G.42) Федеральное бюро расследований: Parole Violator
- 1
- 2
См. также в других словарях:
StEP — steht für: Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle Sixth Term Examination Paper Society of Trust and Estate Practitioners, ein Berufsverband Stadtentsorgung Potsdam Standard for the exchange of product model data, ein CAD Datenformat nach ISO … Deutsch Wikipedia
STEP (satellite) — In physics, the Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle is a planned (as of 2005) space science experiment to test the equivalence principle of general relativity. The experiment should be sensitive enough to distinguish Einstein s theory of… … Wikipedia
STEP — • Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data • Safety Test Engineering Program (AEC), NRTS ( > IEEE Standard Dictionary ) • Simple Transition Electronic Processing ( > IEEE Standard Dictionary ) • Specification To Executable Program (… … Acronyms
STEP — [1] Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data [2] Safety Test Engineering Program (AEC), NRTS ( > IEEE Standard Dictionary ) [3] Simple Transition Electronic Processing ( > IEEE Standard Dictionary ) [4] Specification To Executable… … Acronyms von A bis Z
STEP — 1. Space Test Experiment Platform Contributor: GSFC 2. Space Transportation Engine Program Contributor: LaRC 3. Specialty Training for Entry Level Professionals Contributor: GSFC 4. Standard for the Exchange of Product Contributor: MSFC 5.… … NASA Acronyms
step rate method — A recognized method of fixing rates of fraternal life insurance based on the principle that the insured pays only so much as the society may require to meet its death losses for that year in the membership age of the insured … Ballentine's law dictionary
no false lemmas principle — Principle suggested by the contemporary American philosopher Gilbert Harman in response to Gettier examples in the theory of knowledge. In such cases a person is justified in believing something true, but does not know it, because the truth is… … Philosophy dictionary
Equivalence principle — General relativity|cTopic=Fundamental conceptsThe equivalence principle is one of the fundamental background concepts of the General Theory of Relativity. For the overall context, see General relativity.In the physics of relativity, the… … Wikipedia
Novikov self-consistency principle — The Novikov self consistency principle, also known as the Novikov self consistency conjecture, is a principle developed by Russian physicist Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in the mid 1980s to solve the problem of paradoxes in time travel, which is… … Wikipedia
Cavalieri's principle — Two stacks of coins with the same volume In geometry, Cavalieri s principle, sometimes called the method of indivisibles, named after Bonaventura Cavalieri, is as follows:[1] 2 dimensional case: Suppose two regions in a plane are included between … Wikipedia
Curtin–Hammett principle — The Curtin–Hammett principle is a principle in chemical kinetics proposed by David Yarrow Curtin and Louis Plack Hammett. It states that, for a reaction that has a pair of reactive intermediates or reactants that interconvert rapidly (as is… … Wikipedia